By Dr. Natalie Fallert
Welcome back to my third installment on the Science of Reading from a secondary lens. Today I am tackling oral language and fluency, which lives somewhere between the word recognition and language comprehension strands of Scarborough’s Reading Rope.
Before we go any further, a reminder: the Science of Reading is grounded in decades of research about how the brain works—how it learns, processes, and applies knowledge. As you read, keep asking yourself how this strand fits into the brain’s workload during reading.
Oral Language
Similar to Word Recognition, Oral Language development begins in infancy as babies socially interact with others. They start with babbling, move to words like “ma ma,” and eventually form their first words. As children are exposed to new words and conversations, their language development grows. Just as orthographic mapping requires different brain areas to function properly, so does oral language.
As mentioned in the Phonics blog, speaking and listening are natural processes, but that doesn’t mean students are automatically proficient. Oral language development depends on interactions that encourage conversation and provide rich vocabulary.
One trend I see in classrooms across the country—and right at home with my twin 16-year-olds—is a lack of basic conversational skills and even the desire to engage in conversation.
There are many reasons for this, but I believe technology and the pandemic are major contributors. Walk into any restaurant: how many people are talking versus staring at their phones? It’s not just students—adults are guilty too.
My husband works in construction. When he started in the mid-’90s, crews crowded around one table at break, talking and laughing. Now, job sites are silent—heads down, scrolling. This behavior continues outside of the workplace, with our phones constantly nearby, and if I see one more “one earbud” in my boys’ ears while I’m talking, I may lose it.
As a population, we’ve replaced embodied conversations—those that happen face-to-face, full of emotion and nonverbal cues—with disembodied ones through screens. As Jonathan Haidt explains, embodied interactions depend on presence and spontaneity. Our digital exchanges, by contrast, let us pause, edit, or ignore, removing the natural rhythm of conversation.
If your experience with teens is anything like mine, you’ve seen this in action—the hesitations, the awkward pauses. They live in a world that allows them to craft responses rather than think aloud in real time.
This is where secondary teachers can take flight. You have students for 40+ minutes each day where they can unplug and truly talk to one another. Almost every state includes speaking and listening standards—this is your chance to breathe life into them. Too often, teachers equate these standards with formal presentations. But most adult communication isn’t delivering speeches; it’s conversation—discussing ideas, solving problems, collaborating. That’s what students need most.
Many teachers have told me, “I try to get them to talk, but they won’t,” or “They talk, but they are not on topic”. I agree with both statements, but there is a fix within your control.
Fluency
Mark Seidenberg’s book Language at the Speed of Sight might be the most concrete definition of fluency. Fluency is the ability to read text at an appropriate speed, with accuracy, and with appropriate prosody. What this doesn’t really mention, but is implied, is that beyond the speed, accuracy, and prosody, the reader must also attach accurate meaning to the word for full comprehension to follow.
It is important to understand that fluency is not a skill of mastery, nor is it stagnant. A person can be fluent while reading one text and then struggle with a more difficult text or a complex/unfamiliar topic. A general baseline for reading rate is 110 words/minute; however, for a student preparing for the ACT/SAT, they should be reading at 250-350 WPM in a grade-level text, based on the passage and time constraints of each test.
In blog 2, I mentioned a well-developed orthographic lexicon—an extensive mental dictionary of instantly recognizable words. This is a prerequisite to fluency, and fluency is a prerequisite for comprehension. Reading for meaning is hindered when word recognition is slow and laborious, leading to cognitive overload. When a reader is stumbling over words, they are using cognitive resources just to sound them out. When they can recall a word instantly and accurately, they free up the cognitive space needed to make sense of it. This is where prosody comes into play.
Connection between Oral Language and Fluency
When examining the four components of Oral Language (phonological, semantic, syntactic, and pragmatic), it is easy to see how these two pieces work together. Fluent modeling of reading at various levels is important for students to develop an accurate, prosodic understanding of words. Also, giving kids intentional opportunities to practice reading aloud using accurate pronunciation, intonation, and phrasing is another way to bolster their fluency.
What isn’t working in secondary
In most elementary schools, fluency is assessed through running records or students reading aloud individually with a teacher, which can take between 3-10 minutes per student, but could take as long as 30. This practice is impractical at the secondary level.
Another practice that is too often used in secondary classrooms is “popcorn reading” (calling on different students to read aloud). This practice poses several problems:
The most recent trend I see in classrooms is the use of audio or oral versions of texts. Of all of these, this is probably the best, but it is misguided. Yes, I know that teachers are trying anything they can to help their students, but this is not the fix. The teacher knows the kids need to read it or be exposed to it, but they also believe they won’t or can’t, so they turn to audio versions or read it aloud to them. Where this practice falls short is the lack of eyes on print. Too often (despite the teacher telling students to follow along), kids are staring off into the distance or listening with their heads down, so this practice may help them get the information they need, but it will not make them better, more fluent readers.
Respectful and Research-based Secondary Interventions
Here are a few things to consider trying with your students to increase fluency and help them become more comfortable speaking in class.
Read With a Purpose: When reading, read for a purpose directly aligned with your standards and fluency. If you are reading a fiction story, read a small portion aloud, asking kids to listen for how your voice, expression, and phrasing reveal characterization or conflict. If it is a nonfiction or content-specific selection, think about what words you might need to emphasize more or deliberately point out syntax that helps contribute to the meaning. Model through annotation showing students the connection between how you read the sentence and what it means or how to interpret it.
Read With Emotion: One key piece of strong, fluent readers is their ability to silently read with accurate prosody, which is impossible for a teacher to assess. However, you can explicitly teach this by explaining the importance of reading silently with emotion. One way to model this and allow students to practice is to read a sentence, then ask them to mimic your expression. The more over-the-top they are, the better. Once you get past the awkwardness, it can become quite entertaining. Don’t underestimate the high school student’s inner urge to “act a fool” with permission. You could also model and then ask them to mimic your approach with the next paragraph with a partner. They can alternate sentences, try to outdo each other, or alternate paragraphs. This is not meant to be a whole-class-period activity, but it can be folded in once a week (with appropriate text) for a few minutes.
Read To Be Called On: An alternative to “popcorn reading” is what I call “pick up reading”. Again, this will have to be explicitly taught and routinely done, and is not meant to replace students silently reading an entire text. This approach forces students to follow along because they never know when they will be called to read. The teacher might start by reading 1-2 sentences, then either randomly or strategically call on a student to read. This should take place mid-sentence or paragraph, not routinely at the start of a new paragraph. The called student may read 1-6 sentences, then the teacher picks back up with a sentence or two before handing it off to another student.
Any of these will work best when you routinely use them in your class.
Quick In-the-Moment Fixes
As we explore more components of the Science of Reading, it becomes increasingly clear that none of these strands operate in isolation. Oral language and fluency are not “extra” pieces—they are essential bridges between recognizing words and truly understanding them, reminding us that reading is not just a silent act. In the next post, we’ll continue unpacking this rope and what it demands of us as secondary educators working to build skilled, confident readers.
References:
Hadit, J. (2024). The Anxious Generation. PN Press.
Iowa Department of Education. (2025). Iowa comprehensive state literacy plan (2024–2032). Iowa Department of Education.
Seidenberg, M. S. (2017). Language at the speed of sight: How we read, why so many can’t, and what can be done about it. Basic Books, an imprint of Perseus Books, a division of PBG Publishing, LLC, a subsidiary of Hachette Book Group, Inc.
https://www.lexialearning.com/blog/what-is-scarboroughs-reading-rope